I learnt the terms houseboy and housegirl originate from the British colonial masters referring to domestic servants. It makes me wonder wether the whole tradition as we know it now was intact of colonial origin or did it exist pre-colonial times as well. Where could I get more information?
I refer to the tradition of sending a child to live with a well off relative or family friend, to receive care in exchange of help in domestic chores.
This is the final body of text I am working on and then the first draft of the Thesis is done. I am struggling with it as I lack sources. I keep referring to this one and only source. Also the history is so vast that I wonder if I’m able to give enough space for it without drifting to distracting details.
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Image formation of outgroups reflects the changes of the dynamics of the ingroup (Pieterse, 1992, 29). Thus the stereotypes of Africans take different shapes according to the developments within the Western nations. Trans-Atlantic slave trade,colonialism and the post–colonial era and the relations of majority and minority groups in the West are the major backdrops in the image formation of Africans and blacks by the Westerners (Pieterse, 1992, 10).
The Medieval –The Demon and the Saint
The image of Sub-Saharan Africans in the eyes of Westerners changed from positive images of the antiquity as black colour came to stand for evil and demons in the early Middle Ages by influence of Gnosticism, astrology, alchemy and Manichaeism. As the relationship with Islamic world got tense the symbolism of black demon was transferred to Muslims as the enemies, linking negative connotations to dark skin colour. (Pieterse, 1992, 29.)
In the late Middle Ages Ethiopianism lifted the image of Sub-Saharan Africans through images of admirable characters like the Queen of Saba, Saint Maurice, Black Caspar and Prester John, as Ethiopia became a political allay to Europe against Islamic threat (Pieterse, 1992, 28).
The Evolution of Savage
The sixteenth to seventeenth centuries brought again transition from positive to negative images of Sub-Saharan Africans as savages. The term which originally had described various groups of Europeans was transferred to non-Europeans and reflected the political situation in Europe. (Pieterse, 1992, 30.)
The 16th century also brought about the concept of Noble Savage, the ideal of an uncorrupted society in its natural state, to reflect on the political situation in Europe. This positive anthropological view was driven by revolutionary ideas whereas the more pessimist anthropological view supported the status quo and absolutism, a form of government where unlimited, power is held by a centralized sovereign ruler. At the end of 1800 Europe’s self-confidence was elevated and savagery finally acquired solely negative meaning to affirm European supremacy over other continents. (Pieterse, 1996, 33-34.)
Trans-Atlantic Slavery – Sambo
Sambo stereotype in American culture was the prototype of a content, but lazy childlike slave. Infantilization of slaves served the purpose of justifying the rule over them. A slave, it was believed, would be unable to take care of him or herself. Another purpose for the character lies in the threat of bloody slave rebellions. This harmless goofy character was needed to ease tensions. (Pieterse, 1996, 152, 153.) Stereotype of childish and lazy Sambo was later applied not only to African Americans but to Africans and other oppressed groups as well.
The Abolitionism and Post-Slavery America –patronising images and racism
Pro-slavery images are rare. It was the abolitionists who made slavery visible. The images were aimed to generate sympathy and doing so promoted a new kind of stereotype of the blacks as submissive and weak victims.
The Enlightenment brought up gradual abolition of slavery but gave birth to racial thinking, the attribution of inferiority or superiority on the basis of biological traits. Race defined blacks as free but not equal. (Pieterse, 1996, 45.)
Prior to 1770 African inferiority was backed up by their cultural traits and Christian beliefs, notably that of the curse of Ham until, 1770s when the arguments more and more concentrated on racial attributes. Physiological attributes of human races were analysed and compared. Sub-Saharan Africans were even compared to apes and they were regarded as separate species from Europeans. Likening blacks with animals has continued even in the 20th century. (Pieterse, 1996, 41-44.)
Image of the black Americans have influenced those of Africans. The post-slavery developments in America created and deepened black stereotypes. Images of African Americans continued to dwell in servant roles, other common roles being those of entertainers and sportsmen.
Explorations –Dark Continent in Need of European Light
As Europe’s interests sifted from exploiting a portion of Africans as slaves to the large scale exploitation of the continent itself in the late 1700 Systematic exploration of Africa set off. The expeditions were a prelude to the colonialism of the late-nineteenth century. The images that spread along with the stories of the expeditions, some of which by illustrators who had never been to Africa themselves, served the purpose of justifying European supremacy and rule over the continent. (Pieterse, 1996, 65.) The expeditions and concurring Christian mission trips produced long lasting iconographies of primitive Africans reduced to the role of a head porters, uncivilised people without past and human-sacrificing idol-worshippers. Religious and racial arrogance coloured the images. (Pieterse, 1996, 70.)
Colonialism –brutal warriors and human sacrifice
The early Colonial time image of an African is that of an enemy (Pieterse, 1996, 78.) He was a half-naked warrior carrying brutal weapons, shown mostly alone or in a disorganised group (Pieterse, 1996, 79). The most often used excuse for use of force was that of fight against human sacrifice. Propaganda images were produced on the subject.
As colonial rule got firmly established a different kind of image of an African formed. The rule of few European settlers over the majority of Africans required that the promotion of the supremacy of the Europeans and the subjection and helplessness of the Africans. Stereotype of a lazy native emerged as an excuse of exploitation and force labour (Pieterse, 1996, 91.) Africans were also depicted as impulsive and child-like, surrendering willingly to the all-mighty white man. Colonial iconographies included natives throwing themselves on the ground in adoration in front of the Europeans and humbly carrying them in hammocks or seats, taking the position of a beast of burden. (Pieterse, 1996, 88, 89.)
De-colonisation and Post-colonialism
The political de-colonisation of Africa from European rule began from the early 1900 with the independence of Egypt from Britain in 1922 and continued all the way till 1980 when Zimbabwe gained independence from Britain. The Western media has since broadcasted a grim image of the continent through news of war, genocide, dictatorship, inequality, poverty, hunger and disease. Well intending aid-organisations have done further harm to the continent’s image by emphasising on catastrophes and suffering, spreading paternalistic stereotypes and victim portrayals.
I have been re-writing the narrative to fit it to a conference paper with strict word limit. I have also been trying to make it more evocative. It has been emotionally challenging. I have had to re-live some painful memories with Araba over and over again. Tears keep stopping me. I’m afraid this ends up either as boring project report or as sentimental teenage novel or both. I’m beginning to doubt it was a good idea to choose evocative auto ethnography as a method with my writing skills.
Tavoite:
Tutkimuskysymykset:
Viitekehys:
Menetelmät:
Tapaustutkimuskohde:
Aikataulu:
ILLUSTRATING THE OTHER 